If we say
thinking is essentially operating with signs, the first question
you might ask is: “What are
signs?” ‒ ‒ ‒ Instead of giving any kind of
general answer to this question, I shall propose to you to look
closely at particular cases which we should call
“operating with signs”. Let us look at a
simple example of operating with words. I give
someone the order: “fetch me six apples from the
grocer”, and I will describe a way of making use
26.
of such an
order: The words “six apples” are
written on a bit of paper, the paper is handed to the grocer, the
grocer compares the word “apple” with labels on
different shelves. He finds it to agree with one of the
labels, counts from 1 to the number written on the slip of
paper, and for every number counted takes a fruit off
the shelf and puts it in a bag. ‒ ‒ ‒ And here you
have
one use of words.
I shall in the future again and again draw your attention
to what I shall call language-games. These are
processes of using signs simpler than those which usually occur in
the use of our highly complicated everyday language.
Language games are the forms of language with which a child
begins to make use of words. The study of
language-games is the study of primitive forms of language
or primitive languages. If we want to study the problems
of truth and falsehood, of the agreement and disagreement of
propositions with reality, of the nature of assertion, assumption,
and question, we shall with great advantage look at primitive forms
of language in which these forms of thinking appear without the
confusing background of highly complicated processes of
thought. When we look at such simple forms of
language, the mental mist which seems to enshroud our ordinary
use of language disappears. We see activities, reactions,
which are clear-cut and transparent. On the other
hand we recognize in these simple processes forms of language not
separated by a break from our more complicated ones. We
see that we can build up the complicated forms from the primitive
ones by gradually adding new forms.